Covid-19 Shock: Will We Have a Disorder of the Decade?

Main Article Content

Alanny Nunes de Santana
Antonio Roazzi

Abstract

A new coronavirus spread rapidly around the world characterizing a pandemic. In times of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19), associated with physical health problems, economic and social problems, there are psychological suffering and psychological disorders. In this context, this theoretical essay aims to present reflections on social isolation, fear of imminent death, and the possible increase in the incidence of anxiety disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other mental health sequelae resulting from Covid-19. We observed that the pandemic is an important predictor of symptoms of anxiety disorders, as well as initial empirical studies indicated a considerable increase in the number of people with mental disorders resulting from Covid-19. There is a demand for research that explores and presents empirical data regarding the effects of Covid-19 on the mental health of the population, as well as proposing promotion and prevention strategies.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Article Details

Section
Artigos

References

American Psychiatric Association (2014). Manual diagnóstico e estatístico de transtornos mentais: DSM-5. Artmed.

Barrett, C. (2013). Death anxiety. In M. D. Gellman & J. R. Turner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of behavioral medicine (pp. 541–542). Springer.

Barry, J. M. (2004). The great influenza: The epic story of the greatest plague in history. Penguin.

Blekas, A., Voitsidis, P., Athanasiadou, M., Parlapani, E., Chatzigeorgiou, A. F., Skoupra, M., Syngelakis, M., Holeva, V., & Diakogiannis, I. (2020). Covid-19: PTSD symptoms in Greek health care professionals. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(7), 812–819. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000914

Brooks, S. K., Webster, R. K., Smith, L. E., Woodland, L., Wessely, S., Greenberg, N., & Rubin, G. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8

Campos, E. B. V. (2013). Considerações sobre a morte e o luto na psicanálise. Revista de Psicologia da UNESP, 12(1), 13–24. http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S1984-90442013000100003

Caruth, C. (1996). Unclaimed experience: Trauma, narrative, and history. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Elliott, T. R., Hsiao, Y.-Y., Kimbrel, N. A., Meyer, E. C., DeBeer, B. B., Gulliver, S. B., Kwok, O.-M., & Morissette, S. B. (2015). Resilience, traumatic brain injury, depression, and posttraumatic stress among Iraq/Afghanistan war veterans. Rehabilitation Psychology, 60(3), 263–276. https://doi.org/10.1037/rep0000050

Ferrari, F. (2020). Covid-19: Dados atualizados e sua relação com o sistema cardiovascular. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia, 114(5), 823–826. https://doi.org/10.36660/abc.20200215

Goulart, A. C. (2005). Revisitando a espanhola: A gripe pandêmica de 1918 no Rio de Janeiro. História, Ciências, Saúde-Manguinhos, 12(1), 101–142. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0104-59702005000100006

Hatchett, R. J., Mecher, C. E., & Lipsitch, M. (2007). Public health interventions and epidemic intensity during the 1918 influenza pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(18), 7582–7587. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610941104

Hyland, P., Shevlin, M., McBride, O., Murphy, J., Karatzias, T., Bentall, R. P., Martinez, A., & Vallières, F. (2020). Anxiety and depression in the Republic of Ireland during the Covid-19 pandemic. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 142(3), 249–256. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13219

Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593

Kissler, S. M., Tedijanto, C., Goldstein, E., Grad, Y. H., & Lipsitch, M. (2020). Projecting the transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 through the postpandemic period. Science, 368(6493), 860–868. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb5793

Kübler-Ross, E. (1996). Sobre a morte e o morrer. Martins Fontes.

Lawson, N. R. (2014). Posttraumatic stress disorder in combat veterans. Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants, 27(5), 18–22. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.JAA.0000446228.62683.52

Leandro-França, C., & Murta, S. G. (2014). Prevenção e promoção da saúde mental no envelhecimento: Conceitos e intervenções. Psicologia: Ciência e Profissão, 34(2), 318–329. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-3703001152013

LeBouthillier, D. M., McMillan, K. A., Thibodeau, M. A., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2015). Types and number of traumas associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in PTSD: Findings from a U.S. nationally representative sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22010

Lee, S. A., Jobe, M. C., Mathis, A. A., & Gibbons, J. A. (2020). Incremental validity of coronaphobia: Coronavirus anxiety explains depression, generalized anxiety, and death anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 74, 102268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102268

Li, B., Deng, A., Li, K., Hu, Y., Li, Z., Shi, Y., Xiong, Q., Liu, Z., Guo, Q., Zou, L., Zhang, H., Zhang, M., Ouyang, F., Su, J., Su, W., Xu, J., Lin, H., Sun, J., Peng, J., … Lu, J. (2022). Viral infection and transmission in a large, well-traced outbreak caused by the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant. Nature Communications, 13, 460. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28089-y

Liu, C. H., Zhang, E., Wong, G. T. F., Hyun, S., & Hahm, H. (2020). Factors associated with depression, anxiety, and PTSD symptomatology during the COVID-19 pandemic: Clinical implications for U.S. young adult mental health. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113172

Maia, B. R., & Dias, P. C. (2020). Ansiedade, depressão e estresse em estudantes universitários: O impacto da COVID-19. Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas), 37, e200067. https://doi.org/10.1590/1982-0275202037e200067

Murata, S., Rezeppa, T., Thoma, B., Marengo, L., Krancevich, K., Chiyka, E., Hayes, B., Goodfriend, E., Deal, M., Zhong, Y., Brummit, B., Coury, T., Riston, S., Brent, D. A., & Melhem, N. M. (2021). The psychiatric sequelae of the COVID-19 pandemic in adolescents, adults, and health care workers. Depression and Anxiety, 38(2), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23120

Nascimento, A. M., & Roazzi, A. (2002). A morte e suas imagens. Revista de Ciências Humanas, (6), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.5007/%25x

Nascimento, A. M., & Roazzi, A. (2007). A estrutura da representação social da morte na interface com as religiosidades em equipes multiprofissionais de saúde. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 20(3), 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722007000300011

Nascimento, A. M., & Roazzi, A. (2008). Polifasia cognitiva e a estrutura icônica da representação social da morte. Psicologia: Reflexão e Crítica, 21(3), 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-79722008000300019

Nascimento, A. M., Jesus, H. A. B., & Roazzi, A. (2021). Sentidos de morte em universitários do curso de Psicologia. Revista Educação e Humanidades, 2(1), 525–559. https://www.periodicos.ufam.edu.br/index.php/reh/article/view/8572

Pietrabissa, G., & Simpson, S. G. (2020). Psychological consequences of social isolation during COVID-19 outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2201. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02201

Pyszczynski, T., Lockett, M., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (2021). Terror Management Theory and the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 61(2), 173–189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167820959488

Quittkat, H. L., Düsing, R., Holtmann, F.-J., Buhlmann, U., Svaldi, J., & Vocks, S. (2020). Perceived impact of Covid-19 across different mental disorders: A study on disorder-specific symptoms, psychosocial stress and behavior. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 856246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586246

Roazzi, M., Harris, P., Roazzi, A., & Dias, M. G. B. B. (2009). Exploring death concepts among children in Brazil. In A. Cohen (Ed.), Facet theory and scaling: In the search of structure in behavioral and social sciences (pp. 123–133). Facet Theory Association Press. https://bit.ly/2NPD18j

Rogers, J. P., Chesney, E., Oliver, D., Pollak, T. A., McGuire, P., Fusar-Poli, P., Zandi, M. S., Lweis, G., & David, A. S. (2020). Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric presentations associated with severe coronavirus infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis with comparison to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(7), 611–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30203-0

Salztrager, R. (2016). A morte, a vida e os fenômenos de massa. Aletheia, 49(2), 8–19. http://pepsic.bvsalud.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1413-03942016000200002

Soares, B. G. O., & Lima, M. S. (2003). Estresse pós-traumático: Uma abordagem baseada em evidências. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry, 25(1), 62–66. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462003000500014

Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2015). The worm at the core: On the role of death in life. Random House.

Sylla, B. (2015). Trauma coletivo: Notas sobre um conceito disperso. In A. G. Macedo, C. M. Sousa, & V. Moura (Eds.), Conflito e trauma (pp. 461–476). Edição Húmus. https://bit.ly/3sqePia

Taquet, M., Geddes, J. R., Husain, M., Luciano, S., & Harrison, P. J. (2021). 6-month neurological and psychiatric outcomes in 236 379 survivors of COVID-19: A retrospective cohort study using electronic health records. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(5), 416–427. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(21)00084-5

Tomar, A., & Gupta, N. (2020). Prediction for the spread of COVID-19 in India and effectiveness of preventive measures. Science of the Total Environment, 728, 138762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138762

Winkler, P., Formanek, T., Mlada, K., Kagstrom, A., Mohrova, Z., Mohr, P., & Csemy, L. (2020). Increase in prevalence of current mental disorders in the context of COVID-19: Analysis of repeated nationwide cross-sectional surveys. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 29, e173. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796020000888

World Health Organization (2017). Depression and other common mental disorders: Global health estimates. https://bit.ly/3suT4h3

World Health Organization (2021). Weekly Operational Update on COVID-19 – August 2021. https://bit.ly/3iTI4a6

Wu, Z., & McGoogan, J. M. (2020). Characteristics of and important lessons from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: Summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA, 323(13), 1239–1242. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2648

Yildirim, M., & Güler, A. (2021). Positivity explains how COVID-19 perceived risk increases death distress and reduces happiness. Personality Individual Differences, 168, 110347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110347